Gender Issues and Barriers in Chinese Business

trip out Issues and Barriers in Chinese BusinessWhat kind of barriers blocked (interrupt) egg-producing(prenominal) to be an organization leader in China?Abstr guessChina is atomic number 53 of the most populous countries in the world, with over 50 per centime of its female population in full time work. Like m any an former(a)(prenominal) countries, Chinas wo custody atomic number 18 low-represented in higher-ranking circumspection or presidential termal lead roles indoors Chinese organisations. Yet Chinese women be universe educated as well as men, if non mend, and benefit from complete policies which prevent discrimination in the world of work. It outs that in that respect be barriers which scratch Chinese womens qualification to advance along the c arg 1r ply to scram organisation leaders.A qualitative, Grounded Theory based ponder was carried show up to determine what, if any, were the barriers to women becoming organisation leaders in China. The stu dy aimed to verify a focus on women themselves and so the sample comprised women already workings indoors Chinese tradees and organisations, who were asked to identify barriers to their becoming occupancy leaders or elderberry bush executives. Sensitising questions followed up an initial questionnaire and proforma, to probe into more dot about their responses.The Grounded Theory act upon of Open, Axial and Selective Coding was followed systematically, and the net three categories of Leadership Effectiveness, Stereotypes and Preconceptions, and Social and Societal Norms and Expectations and Personal Characteristics were identified and discussed. It attends that the discern barriers to women becoming organisational leaders argon their capacity to be effective leaders, the stereotypes and preconceptions of them as women workers, on the part of others and on the part of the women themselves, and the loving norms versus their personal characteristics. This expire category included unique aspects of Chinese culture and line of descent etiquette which mannerism solid challenges for women in leaders roles.More seek is at a time mandatory to enquiry in more concrete ways these barriers, and to identify operable and achievable ways that they faculty be overcome.IntroductionChina is bingle of the most populous nations in the world (Saran and Guo, 2005). China is a rotund land, with more than half a billion women, over 50 per cent of who are in full-time oeuvre (Cooke, 2004 p 243). This represents a signifi stubt percentage of the workforce. thither is, plainly, a discrepancy surrounded by the numbers of women in exercising and the numbers of women who achieve senior leadership roles inside Chinese organisations. It seems that knowledge about these Chinese women in general and women in management in unique(predicate), remains very moderate (Cooke, 2004 p 243). in that respect appear to be very little sources of information on the numbers of women in senior management or leadership positions in either the usual or the private sector in China. While this whitethorn non seem to be a surprise to some, it does beg the question of wherefore women do not achieve senior leadership positions inwardly crinklees and organisations in China, particularly minded(p) a growing awareness of Chinas supremacy in spite of appearance the global art environment, which must influence stock and organisational practices. It is established inside the railway line and organisational publications, as well as other social literature, that sex discrimination remains a reality in our alliance (Agars, 2004 p 103). This is despite evolution of societies and apparent modifications in set, beca practise thither is evidence that in all aspects of social life people and their reactions and judgements are considered by sexual practice stereotypes and preconceptions (Agars, 2004). It is besides well known that at that infinite are more men than women in managerial roles in the employment and occupational world (Lublin, 1996), and this disparity increases the higher the seniority of the position (Agars, 2004 Adler and Izraili, 1994 AMBA, 1996).The principle for investigating the barriers which block or interrupt women from cosmos organisation leaders in China stems partly from the great reliance of the Chinese deliverance on its stinting capacity, and in particular its duty capacity, locally and in the global marketplace. Economic success of developing countries (if China can unruffled be considered such) is clearly linked to gender comparability (Morrison and Jutting, 2005). If Chinese disdaines are to succeed, they need to espouse and contain the characteristics of successful creasees. If Chinese landed estate organisations are to function at their optimal capacity and make best use of available resources, they should optimise their usage of those resources, a significant one be their human resou rces. Women whitethorn be cosmos overlooked as authorityly valuable contri scarceors to senior management and leadership positions. However, this whitethorn simply glitter the lower status of women in Chinese society (Tian et al, 2007). Paradoxically, Chinese women are not inevitably viewed by all as of lower status. Foo et al (2006) quote a United Nations Development Fund study which summarises Chinese women as outshining men in the job arena because they are better at communications they are able to think more rationally and because they pursue their races with single-minded resolve. Yet at that place is ongoing evidence that these women are still under-represented in senior leadership roles.Noble (2006) states excluding women from leadership roles impacts on intersection pointivity and militates a come alongst a workforce characterised by a diversity of workers (p 599). This opinion of gender inequality comes down to simple business sense. Models of women in senior posit ions and in equal numbers generally benefit the institutions offering variant perspectives, fetchs and contributions women can make. (Noble, 2006 p 599). Noble (2006) severalises the lack of women in such roles as a wastage of management and leadership talent which arises from and is perpetuated by the certain under representation of women at senior trains, and which seriously undermines organisations ability to respond to change and threatens its future viability and vitality in the contriveion of the economic challenges of the changing workplace. p 599). Therefore, it can easy be seen that for optimal business coiffureance, the capacity of women to give way to its success should not be overlooked, and so a study into the barriers which feeling women in achieving such positions could be of considerable significance for such organisations within China.However, the other rationale for this choice of investigation is to promote the interests of women within the Chinese worl d of employment and entrepreneurship, and to ensure that the question carried out focuses on their perspectives and illuminates their experiences. It is ordinary of the business world that the theoretical arena it is supported by is dominate by studies based on rationalistic principles and on outputs and outcomes relating to success and detailors which result to that success. There is a human dimension of business, which the theoretical domain is now starting to appreciate, in which business capacity and success can be found to be reliant not only on the skills of the workforce, but on their capacity to contribute in multiple ways to the organisation and its outputs. ground the views and experiences of women may help not only to define the barriers which slip them in relation to achieving leadership roles, but to set out nearly ways in which such barriers might be overcome, sidestepped, reduce or even re huntd from their path. Women within employment seem to consistently suf fer, at a certain(a) level, from a congeneric inequality with men. Women in China, hitherto, overhear for a long time savoured employment rights based on equality legislation which has shaped social norms to support women into full time employment, which reach outs throughout their working lives, even when they fuddle children (Cooke, 2004). Despite this, women do not enjoy the same levels of seniority in organisations and businesses as men do, and certainly not in similar numbers. This is a human rights issue (Noble, 2006) and one which is of tie in to China and to all women and womens activists. It may be tie in to a trend within former socialist countries of what Fan (2003) calls transition, which is characterised by a resurgence of gendered differences in occupational spheres.Because China is a business culture in a state of transition and change, and in which the effectuate of change may not be realised for some(prenominal) time, at that place is a need for investig ative studies which explore the characteristics of this culture, from the points of view of those within it. There is an issue here about ground what barriers present themselves to women who aspire to leadership roles, but similarly, whether or not women in these Chinese business and occupational spheres do view themselves as working towards such processions.Because of the lack of data-based research on the subject of the barriers which present themselves to women who wish to aspire to leadership roles in organisations in China, the choice of methodological approach for the inquiry was limited, as quantitative studies are based on hypotheses developed from previously make research. Good quality quantitative research studies also require tremendous samples of a divers(a) study population, and the limitations of this academic research project do not allow for the kind of survey that would provide adequate numbers, statistically, for a purely quantitative study. Therefore, havi ng explored a range of options for the investigation of the research question, the causality came to the conclusion that a quantitative approach would be best suited to this electron orbit. However, the author was keen to include simple descriptive statistics within the study data, and also wanted to achieve a similar level of grimness as is usually achievable within the quantitative domain. Therefore, the author colonised on the use of Grounded Theory (Glaser and Strauss, 1967), which is a methodology derived from symbolic interactionism and within which there are rigidly defined stages of the investigation, with clearly outlined process and steps towards the development of theoretical understandings which nevertheless remain planetary housely grounded in the data derived from the study (Glaser and Strauss, 1967 Goulding, 2005).The following dissertation is set out within the traditional parameters required by the university and by the academic standards of higher education. There is first of all a literature freshen up, wherefore a description and geographic expedition of the methodology utilised within the study. This is followed by an outline of the data characteristics and background, which is indeed followed an exploration and discussion of the qualitative data derived from the study. This data is considered and evaluated alongside existent research findings which relate to the data, as is required by the Grounded Theory method, in which data analysis and literature analysis occur simultaneously, such that the accessed literature is treated much as the data is, and subject to the same immutable comparison (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). This is followed by conclusions and recommendations for practice and further research. The study aimed to illuminate the cloudy depths of untapped knowledge and understanding of the barriers which interrupt womens career procession within Chinese organisations, and thus barriers will be identified and to some e xtent, their meanings or significance explored. The literature review and the data analysis are separated into themed subheadings, to better signpost the issuent discursive threads of the study. literary productions ReviewDue to the nature of the topic area, it is not possible to conduct all the available literature, but a critical literature review of severalise issues will be attempted. The literature review draws on sources related to Chinese business, women in business, entrepreneurship, social theory and even feminist theory, as well as general business and organisational studies, in order to explore the capability barriers that might stir already been identified as eyeshot-provoking women to be organisational leaders. The balance of research is affected by the available literature, and by the nature of the research which has already been carried out into similar topics. Little however is written, in wrong of empirical research, which directly addresses this dissertati ons research question. However, there are valuable contributions to be made by research from crosswise the business and organisational literature in relation to generic and specific factors affecting womens opportunities to become organisational leaders.China has a vast area of land, and is characterised by considerable social, economic, geographic and ethnic diversity (Chow et al, 2004). Only those factors which can directly be related to the study question will be addressed here. This will allow for the setting of the context and current understanding of the factors which affect the experience of women in China aspiring to become organisational and business leaders. In China, women work alongside their husbands throughout their lifespan, and are supported by employment policies which assure them a reasonably equal role as workers, in terms of basic employment rights (Chow et al, 2004). Therefore, women have a firm foundation within the world of employment, and should, it could be argued, be surrounded by the same opportunities as their male counterparts in terms of career promotion. However, this does not seem to be the case.It is a global feature of business that women seem to experience what is known as the glass jacket crown within occupational life (Ryan and Haslam, 2005 Cortis and Cassar, 2005). This refers to the fact that women can attain up to a certain level of seniority in many organisations or businesses, but cannot open through into senior leadership roles. There are numerous studies which explore how and why this glass ceiling came to exist, and how it is perpetuated. In terms of Chinese culture, there are strong traditions of loyalty to family and loyalty to ones top dog or employer (Fu et al, 2004). This author would question whether this notion of loyalty contributes to the glass ceiling within Chinese organisations.GenderObviously, the first and most frank potential barrier for women in business in China (and in any other culture or nat ion-state) is that of gender. Gender within this context unavoidably defining, as theoretically, it is still the subject of some argument. Ahl (2006) refers back to feminist learning which employed the term gender to distinguish between biological sex and socially constructed definitions of sex, the social practices and representations associated with femininity or masculinity (p 596). In this article, gender is used to refer to sex in terms of the biological differences between male and female, and the socially-constructed models of manly and feminine. It is important to note that these may differ harmonise to Western and Chinese norms, and where possible, differentiations between cultural definitions of gender will be highlighted.It has long been known that business is a male or masculine domain. There has been research which hints that men and women even differ in terms of occupational aspirations, such that males would tend to aspire towards male-dominated occupations in wh ich they can foretaste for better success, and women, though to a somewhat lesser extent, showing a tendency to veer towards female-dominated occupations in which they are more possible to be able to excel more easily (Powell and Butterfield, 2003). This may be partly ascribable to diachronic and even current forms of gender discrimination within business and occupational/ headmaster spheres. Gender discrimination however is no longer as apparent as it used to be, thanks to anti-discrimination policies in most organisations and nations (Beck and Davis, 2005). However, in China, the half a centurys state intervention in womens employment has largely focused on protecting womens labour rights and increasing their share in employment quantitatively, whereas little provision exists which aims to ensure and improve the quality of womens employment prospects (Cooke, 2004 p 245). Cooke (2004) shows that women are less represented in professional or management positions, and are more pr evalent in clerical and lower-level manual(a) work (Sargeson 2006 Sargeson 2007a).This is significant, given that Chinese women do not traditionally start out career breaks to have children, and view their role as equal to that of their husbands in terms of full time work (Cooke, 2004 Sargeson 2007b). This is in direct subscriber line to the Westernised (and perhaps globalised) norms of womens occupational experience, wherein women have to either accepted change magnitude occupational capacity and career advancement in order to have children, or embrace childlessness in order to comply with inherent business norms and achieve success within those parameters (Wood and Newton, 2006 Burke, 1999). Even so, men make up the majority of employees in most of the occupations and in state owned sectors where reasonable earnings are highest (Cooke, 2004 p 245). This is no new finding.For women in China, historical and socio-political factors such as the legacy of Marxism, state/party cont rol, economic reform, political upheavals, local conditions and global influences have affected their self identity, they understanding of their place within the business and employment worlds, and the ways in which they perceive of and experience their career progress and success (Chow et al, 2004, p 161). China has followed an intellectual innovation which has brought to the fore gender studies and feminist studies (Chow et al, 2004), which suggests that the cultural response would likely be that women are more aware of the kinds of organisational and societal cultural barriers to their career advancement into leadership roles.Studying Chinese womens experiences of barriers to career advancement could be problematic, however, because the very terms used by Westernised scholarly discourse to describe issues of gender and womens equal rights are essentially difficult to hand over (Chow et al, 2004). However, as all literature for this assignment is accessed in English, this should only be viewed as a potential weakness to the study if the respondents are first language Chinese and there are discrepancies between underlying meanings. other feature of gender discrimination in Chinese business is the fact that the state-owned enterprises and public-sector organisations typically run away in an internal labour market system in which jobs are rarely advertised, and promotion decisions are made internallyby superiors (Cooke, 2004, p 249). This means that internal cultural and business mores and codes, which are often set and perpetuated by managers and leaders (who are most likely men), are perpetuated in a way that might exclude women from achieving advancement (Boisot and Child, 1996 Church et al, 2003). These are however buried, often, and not easily labelled as gender discrimination (Beck and Davis, 2005). This is a common feature of all businesses and organisations, it seems, which continue to operate along traditional patriarchal and hierarchical lines.Cult ural issues also point to gender issues which may present as barriers to womens career advancement (Brush, 1992). Hanser (2005) explores emerging conceptions of gender in China, in relation, in particular, to assistance work. This ethnographic study within three urban Chinese detain settings shows that there are gendered class distinctions which are communicated and perpetuated within this sector, which a move from socialism to a more marketized society, wherein younger, youthful and feminine (and urban) women are value while quondam(a)er and rural women are devalued (Hanser, 2005 Duehr and Bono, 2006). This is reflected in other international contexts and other types of societies (Egri and Ralston, 2004). Hanser (2005) related this to a legitmization of certain roles for certain women within Chinese employment contexts, a fact supported by Coe (1992). This then has nothing to do with role effectiveness, but to do with the external characteristics of women (Hanser, 2005 Cooke 20 03 Cooke, 2005). subdue behaviours may be reinforced and inappropriate behaviours censured by such limited characterisations of the suitable female employee (Hanser, 2005). Lewis (2006) uses the example of women entrepreneurs, and suggests that the behaviour (business or other) of women involved in entrepreneurial activity of whatever sort is defined and evaluated gibe to the standards of an unperceivable masculine norm (p 453). This shows that underlying business activities are gendered definitions of how people within the market should behave and present themselves (Collinson and Collinson, 1990 Connell, 2005). Because of this, womens ability to gain commercial, business or occupational success is defined and constrained by apparently unseen (but very real) forces (Cornelius and Skinner, 2008)Where this behaviour is judged as differing from the normative standard of serious, professional business, women experience an othering as the non-male and are marked out. (Lewis, 2006 p 4 53).This is a constant quantity theme of the business literature, that the male is the standard and the female is viewed as other, as unconventional, as non-standard (and perhaps inherently non-compliant) (Beechey, 1987).Perceptions of gender and gender limitations may also be internalised by many women, and may explain one reason why women do not lead as many successful businesses as men, or are not business leaders as frequently (Bryman, 1987). Kalleberg and Leicht (2005) show that women are less likely to innovate, prefer risks or step out in new directions in business than men, perhaps due to the social disapproval girls are likely to scram for straying from socially accepted, gender-normative patterns of behaviour, and the encouragement and tolerance that boys typically receive for lovable in innovative play and nonconforming behaviour (p 142).EducationIt is thought by some theorists that the lower representation of women in senior positions is due to their marginally lower levels of education compared to those of men in China (Cooke, 2004). However, it is also apparent that amount of women in higher education has been increasing deep in China, at a much faster rate than men (Cooke, 2004). Education is seen as a key to senior executive careers (Baruch and Peiperl, 2000 Bickerstaffe, 1992 Carpenter, 1997). This would suggest that the relative lack of education suggested as a barrier to women achieving senior leadership roles may be a factor which is being promptly eroded. However, it is hard to find evidence of this. Cooke (2004) also argues that discrimination against women starts in the recruitment selection to higher education in institutions (p 247), and this has follow-on effects throughout their incidental careers. Women are under-represented in certain subjects, including science and business subjects, and have to perform better than men to achieve the same levels of acclaim (Cooke, 2004).Bahry and Marr (2005) show how womens education in Qat ar has developed to such an extent that women are being over-represented in higher education, and that this might signify a shift in gender-dominance in future business domains. However, the nature of this education is not necessarily such that it would develop the kinds of abilities and capacities that are needed in order to gain leadership roles later on in life (Bahry and Marr, 2005).Globalisation and the current international business environmentIt is important to consider where women business leaders or potential business leaders in China might locate themselves, ideologically and paradigmatically, and how the current environment might affect their ability to assume such senior roles. Mamman and Liu (2008) discuss the difference between macro-level examinations of globalization on business (and on culture and society), and the micro-level, in which the effects of globalization on singulars can be appreciated. Globalisation can potentially affect all areas of business (Gunkel et al, 2007). China has, since the 1980s, two embraced and significantly benefited from industrial and business globalisation (Fishman, 2006 Hirst and Thompson, 1999 Stiglitz, 2002 2003 2006). According to Mamman and Liu (2008), globalisation is particularly important to a society like China where the impact of globalization can have both positive and negative connotations depending on where individuals are geographically located and whether they operate in the public or private sector (p 2). Thus, there may be barriers to achieving career success or business leadership for women in China which are directly related to their personal experience or understanding of globalisation. Mamman and Liu (2008) suggest that the form and manner in which globalization is chased by organizations (private or public) and the nation states is an aggregation of thoughts and behaviour of individuals enabled and constrained by global forces (p 6).This kind of understanding would suggest that global fo rces may act as barriers to women becoming business leaders, but it could also be viewed that globalisation could likely be an emancipating force for women in China, because it might at to the lowest degree provide role models for business leadership in other areas and across a diverse range of businesses (Elliott and Stead, 2008). However, it is not enough to cite the forces that emerge from globalisation, such as greater participation in more diverse markets or the presence of women peers with which to do business. It is also important to understand the individual level of response to the new global business environment. It seems that to understand why and how organizations and institutions behave in the global economy, we also need to understand how key actors interpret global phenomenon (p 6). Therefore, accessing individual women who work within business, and women who are want to develop as entrepreneurs, would provide this personal understanding of the global forces of busi ness and perhaps identify more individual as well as international barriers to women succeeding as business leaders.Globalisation is viewed in the business literature usually in positive terms (Mittelman, 2006), but oka (1998) argues that this may not be the case. Oka (1998) suggests that the terminology of globalisation has a distinct connotation of something whole that suggests absolute relatedness, harmony, balance and smoothness (p 32). However, this, according to Oka (1998) is not the case, and there is the argument that globalisation might misdirect social values which underpin society and over-value economics and material gain. However, given the current socialist model of society and economy in China, globalisation may not necessarily be a destabilising force, and the history of business in China in the last two decades certainly suggests that the country and its industry has taken full advantage of the opportunities globalisation presents (Mamman and Liu, 2008 Parker, 200 5).Mamman and Liu (2008) carried out research in individual views and responses to globalisation in China, and found that respondents view globalization from economic perspective rather than from cultural convergence or political convergence perspective. (p 32). This suggests that globalisation is most significant to industry and business for Chinese women in business. Mamman and Liu (2008) also state that their respondents viewed globalisation as a product of capitalism they view globalization not only as economic activities but as a philosophical and ideological (not cultural) shift in the way the world conducts economic activities P 32).This research suggests that globalisation is not part of a potential package of cultural barriers to women business or organisation leaders in China. But Child (2002) does underline the potential cultural conflicts which might challenge women in responding to global business markets, if they have not really had the appropriate training, experience or support during their business or organisational careers. Yet, it may be that many women who wish to assume leadership positions in China are not challenged by global forces or by potential cultural differences, simply because they take a matter-of-fact view of business and leadership. For these, globalisation might erode barriers to them achieving such roles (Dunning, 2003 Fiss and Hirsch, 2005).Understanding the global context however, is possible from international literature. Beck and Davis (2005) cite the case of a financial organisation Australia that was attempting to increase the numbers of women at managerial level. This organisation had to overcome not only attitudinal barriers but personal barriers (Beck and Davis, 2005). Bahry and Marr, (2005) discuss the social and ideological shifts which have changed womens roles and status in Quatar, such that they may be becoming more endowed with the capacity to take on leadership roles. However, Singh and Vinnicombe (2004) sho w that it is still the norm that masculine senior level managers and boards maintain their hegemonic statusEvidence shows that senior women do not easily gain access to the boardroom, where an elite group of male directors maintain their spring (Singh and Vinnicombe, 2004 p 479).If Chinese businesses are being significantly affected by Westernised business practices, there is the potential that these practices present more barriers to women taking on senior leadership positions, rather than helped to change entrenched cultural values which have been seen as inherent in Chinese business practice. Gobalisation may therefore be viewed as a source of new hurdle race and obstacles to be surmounted for women in China. These barriers include what are described as informal or hidden processes associated with senior promotion (Alimo-Metcalfe, 1995), a relative lack of appropriate and available career development routes and activities (Ragins et al, 1998), and, the more obvious barrier, the lower levels of pay allocated to women (Oakley, 2000). There are also behavioural and cultural barriers, which include the gender role stereotyping of leadership capability (Schein and Muller, 2002), communication styles which reflect gendered differences (Tannen, 1994), and the social exclusion, corporate cultural norms, entrenched power dynamics and old boys networks which characterise British and American businesses (Ragins Sundstrom, 1989). It can be seen that while there may be similarities in Chinese businesses in terms of barriers which emerge from traditional business norms and behaviours, there may be others which could be derived from the businesses they are exposed to in the Global marketplace. Therefore, Chinese women may find themselves having to face and adapt to more or different challenges to ascending the corporate or organisational ladder.Personal CapabilitiesOther factors which may affect womens career success at senior level is a perception that they are not cap able of leading businesses as well as men (Cooke, 2004 Kalleberg and Leicht, 2005 Fischlmayr, 2002), and the women being faced with competing family demands, particularly from children (Beatty, 1996). This is not necessarily the case in China, however, because it has become the cultural norm for women to work full time, even after having had children, and women do not take career breaks to have children, a fact which is facilitated by the one-child rule (Cooke, 2004).Women may be viewed however in terms of their gender and this will likely affect not only perceptions of their effectiveness as leaders, but evaluations of their success as well (Gunkel et al, 2007 Gutek, 1985 Fondas, 1997). Ryan and Haslam (2005) suggest that when traditional masculi